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The contributions of ancient Arabic and Egyptian scientists in chemistry

The contributions of ancient Arabic and Egyptian scientists in chemistry
Md. Wasim Aktar * and M. Paramasivam
Department. of EAB. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
Abstracts
Modern chemistry is based on the results and thought the people of historical age. If you do not know the basis of the past and work on a subject, or she might develop an idea or new facts. In fact, a civilization must know its past. Therefore, this work is a small effort to obtain the contribution of former Arab and Egyptian scientists in the field of chemistry. Various researchers from the school of thought, correlation between different current science of chemistry as a main theme, are described in this document.
The chemical composition and properties of substances and changes in the composition they undergo. It has been divided into organic and inorganic. The design of this modern chemistry came Al-Razi Classification Chemicals in the mineral, vegetable and animal. The inorganic chemistry to the preparation and properties of elements and compounds, which emerged from the study of minerals and metals, while organic chemistry, which deals with carbon compounds, developed by the research products animals and plants.
Before 1828, it was possible to synthesize organic substances from their elements and, therefore, assumed there was no fundamental difference between organic and inorganic chemistry. In 1828, F. Synthetically prepared Wohler urea, a organic substance, revealing that there was no difference between these two main branches of chemistry. Since carbon compounds were numerous, separate study under the organic chemistry and the study of elements and compounds of carbon in inorganic chemistry. (1)
The first discoveries were made in inorganic chemistry in metallurgy, Materia Medica, paint, enamel, glass, glass manufacturing, art, etc. These arts, and many metals, compounds and alloys have been Arabs. Similarly, the findings in organic chemistry have been made in the arts of dyeing, tanning, paper manufacturing, the study of fat, both plant and animal, medicine, etc. This chemistry has its roots in the techniques photography, mineralogy, metallurgy, Materia Medica and the decorative arts. It is the product of the transmutation base metals into gold
and interest practice in philosophical or theoretical. Finally, is the result of studying the properties of substances.
A Greek philosopher Empedocles believed that the four elements, air, water, earth and fire are the primary elements, and that different substances have been doing their combination. He looks to be distinct and unchanging. Aristotle believed that these elements must say the change from one type of art could be changed to another type. (2)
Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber Liatinized like), a large chemical Arab CA 8th century, as amended by the Aristotelian doctrine the four elements, and presented the theory of sulfur-mercury metals. According to this theory of metals differ essentially because of different proportions of sulfur and mercury in them. Also he formulated the theory of the geological formation of metals.
Unlike his Greek predecessors, Not only speculate, but the experiments lead to conclusions. He recognized and emphasized the importance of experimentation chemistry. It combines the theoretical knowledge and knowledge of Greek craftsmen practice, and he made remarkable progress both in theory and practice of chemistry.
Jabir contribution to the chemistry is great. He gave a scientific description of the two principal operations of chemistry. One is an inflammation that is used in the extraction of metals from their ores. The other reduction is used in many chemical treatments. Improved methods of evaporation, melting, distillation, sublimation, and crystallization. These are the basic methods used for the purification of chemicals, allowing the chemical to study their properties and uses, and to prepare them. The distillation process is particularly applicable to the manufacture of material extracted plant.
According to Jabir culture of gold has not been the sole object of a chemical. The preparation of new chemical substances are also regarded by him as the main subject of chemistry. We owe it to him for the first preparation of substances like arsenic and antimony from sulfides and basic lead carbonate. He has also done important work in the preparation of steel and the refinement of metals. Jabir also manages applications such as the use of manganese dioxide in glass, polish the fabric waterproof and protect the use of iron from iron pyrites written in gold and the distillation of vinegar to concentrate acetic acid.
The most important discovery was made by Jabir the preparation of sulfuric acid. The importance of this discovery can be performed by the fact that in this modern era of industrial progress as a country is mainly determined by the amount. sulfuric acid consumed in the country. Another important acid prepared by him was nitric acid, which distilled from a mixture of alum (Yemen) and copper sulphate (in Cyprus). Then, by the dissolution of ammonium chloride in acid, it was decided that water regia, unlike acids, could dissolve gold it contains.
Products Chemical Jabir classified on the basis of certain distinctive features, bodies (gold, silver, etc.) and souls (mercury, sulfur, etc.) to study their properties easier.
Jabir is the author of many books on chemistry and a book on the astrolabe. One hundred chemical structures that attributed to him are preserved. His fame rests mainly on its books stored chemicals in Arabic. (3)
We note that the author recognized and declared clearly the importance of experimentation more clearly than any other pharmacy in the beginning. The remarkable point of view on methods chemical research. It is impossible to draw definitive conclusions about the extent of their contributions until all written Arabic assigned have been properly modified and studied. But on the basis of present knowledge, Jabir appears to be one of the greatest scientists, whose influence can be followed throughout the period of historical development of Arab and European chemicals. In light of these facts, it would be wrong to call Jabir that the Father of Chemistry.
Some of these chemical letters whose name is linked Jabir were translated into Latin. The first version, the Book of the Composition of Alchemy was made by Robert of Chester in 1144. The Kitab al-Sab'in (the book of seventy years) was translated by Gerard of Cremona in the 12th century. "Translate Sum of Perfection was made by Richard Russell. One of his books have been translated into French by Berthelot. (4)
Several technical terms have passed the written Arabic Jabir across America in European languages. These include realgar (arsenic sulphide red), Tuti (zinc oxide), soda, antimony stills for the distillation vessel. The equivalent in Arabic during the last three words are alqali, ithmad and al'anbiq, respectively. (5)
Jabir Ibn Hayyan Before the Umayyad prince Khalid Ibn Yazid, who was a philosopher, poet and chemist, encouraged Greek philosophers in Egypt to translate Greek scientific works into Arabic. They were among the first translations into Arabic from other languages. He himself was deeply interested in medicine, astrology and chemistry. Several chemical plants assigned. One of them is entitled al-Hikma al-Firdaus fi'Ilm Kimiya. This work was in verse, containing 2315 verses. (6)
A scientist encyclopedic, and philosopher, Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Kindi considered the art of transformation of a metal in the other as a sham. Some of their "many books on science Many are preserved. One of his works is at the pharmacy, a branch of applied chemistry. (7)

Chemistry has been mixed mineralogy and general geology. The oldest of Saudi lapidary can serve as an important source of the chemical has been written by "Muhammad ibn al-Hasib Utara which flourished in the ninth century. It covers the properties of gemstones. (8)
In the work century was more advanced Jabir al-Razi, who wrote many treatises chemicals, and describes a number of chemical instruments. One of his treatises consisted of 25 parts of chemical equipment. It conducts research on the specific gravity. One of his important works of art is the transformation base metals in the noble. He applied his knowledge of chemistry for medical purposes, thereby laying the groundwork for Iatrochemistry. (9)
Other products important chemicals in this century and Jahiz Dhu'lNün. The first deals mainly with the art of transmutation of metals. (10) last prepared ammonia from animal offal by dry distillation. (11)
In the tenth century, Ibn Wahshiyah wrote on chemistry, his work can help to understand the chemical symbolism. Maslamah Ibn Ahmad, an astronomer, mathematician and vision of this century has written two books entitled RUTBAT chemical Ghãyat al-Hakim and al-Hakim. The second is well known in the Latin translation made in 1252 by order of King Alfonso under the title Picatrix. (12)
A pharmacology Persian Ibn Mansur Muwaffaq Abu 'Ali al-Harawi that flourished in Herat, in the tenth century, was apparently the first to think of compiling a treatise on Materia Medica Persian. He traveled through Persia and India to obtain the necessary information. He wrote between 968 and 977, a book entitled Kitab al-a Haqa'iq Abniyah '-Adwiyah. It contains Greek, Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and indigenous knowledge. The reference 585 to the resources (of which 466 are derived from plants, Minerals 75, and 44 animals). They were classified into four groups according to their action, and gave an outline of a general theory pharmacology.
Abu Mansur distinction between carbonate Sodium (Natrum) and potassium carbonate (Qali). He had some knowledge of arsenious oxide, oxide copper, silicic acid, antimony, etc. Knew toxicological effects of compounds of copper and lead, the depilatory virtue of quicklime, the composition plaster of Paris and its surgical use. (13)
The best surgeon in Arabic, Abbas Khalaf ibn al-Zahrawi (d. 1013) wrote a great medical encyclopedia, al-Tasrif in 30 sections, which contains interesting methods of preparing drugs by sublimation and distillation, but its most important of surgery. (14)
Abu Muhammad al-Rayhan Biruni (973-1048) had a great interest in determining the specific gravity of eighteen stones and precious metals. A lapidary large single unedited manuscript by al-Biruni is kept at the Library El Escorial. Contains a description of a many stones and metals from the natural point, commercial and medical. In addition, wrote a pharmacology (Saydalah). Additional information could certainly get their unpublished works on the origin of stones from India and China and medicines, which appeared in the early academic Arabic. (15)
Ibn Sina wrote a treatise on minerals, which is very important and a source of geological knowledge, a source of chemistry in Western Europe until the Renaissance.
As mentioned previously, mineralogy were closely related to chemistry. Nearly fifty pithy Arabs appointed. The best known of them is. flowers "Knowledge of Stones, by Shihab al-Din al-Tifashi (died in Cairo in 1154). It occurs in 25 chapters Extensive information on the subject of the same quantity of precious stones, their origin, geography, review, purity, price and application for medical and magical, and so on. With the exception of Pliny and Aristotle lapidary cited authors as Arabic. (16)

The production of books was great chemistry in the eleventh century. Therefore, do not know the books of forty years in Arab and Persian chemists. Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406) talented Arab philosopher of history and a better understanding of his century, was a violent opponent of the idea of transmutation of metals by chemical means. (17)
Some chemists believed that a metal can be transformed into another by artificial methods. For this transformation which followed different procedures depending on the nature and form of chemical processing and material selected for this purpose, the substance which is called the "Noble Stone "or" philosopher's stone. This can be feces, or blood, or hair, or eggs, or anything else. After the substance has been specified, it is mentioned along certain lines in his books. The result is a land or a liquid substance called Elixir. Chemists believe Elixir is added if the money that has been heated in a fire, silver turns to gold. If added to the copper was heated in a fire, the copper becomes money.
The question that arises is whether the metals are the specific differences which are a separate species, or if they differ in certain properties and qualities that are different types of the same species?
Abu Nasr al-Farabi and his supporters held Notice that the difference in metals is due to conditions such as humidity and dryness, softness and hardness, and color like yellow, black and white. For him, the metals are different types of the same species.
Moreover, Ibn Sina and his followers believed that the metals have specific differences and belong to different species, each with its own gender gap as all other species.
According to Abu Nasr al-Farabi, it is possible to transform a metal one, because they can change their conditions.
"Ibn Sina believed that such transformation is impossible. His hypothesis is based on the fact that some differences in metals can not be changed by artificial means. He believed that since the metals are created by the Creator and Determiner of things, God Almighty, and the mystery of his true character was completely unknown and can not perceive any attempt at change would be meaningless "(18).
Former Arab art metal was based on Hellenistic traditions and Iran, but apparently, the principles and main operations were already in place well before the 12th century. Before this century, the Arabs had not only made numerous experiments, and produced several books on art, but had begun to doubt and criticize the theories most forward to this. This shows that the level of chemicals developed thought.
The 12th and 13th centuries added Little known to them processing metals, but his current research in various fields. The principal author of this chemical has been the age Abu'lQãsim Muhammad al-Iraqi, who flourished in the second mid-13th century. He was an experimentalist and a theorist. His works represent the full development doctrine of Arabic. (19)
The 14th century was a period of enlightened a group of intelligent writers have begun reject the idea of metal by chemical means. One such person is a historian, Rashid al-Din, which describes the practice, these chemicals Mongols in Persia and expressed their distrust of these chemicals. The great encyclopedic work Nukhbat al-Dahr al-Dimashqi contains, in second part, a lot of information on the metal, its properties, and influences. (19) As usual in treaties in Arabic, chemistry, mineralogy is mixed with and geology. (20)
Even in their purely chemical research on the metals, chemicals found in Arabs any way the results of importance. In their efforts to discover the elixir that is often found new chemical processes and established the catalytic properties of various substances. Bread, which won gold in the search finally led to his great contribution to development of modern chemistry.
The last great 14th century chemical was' Ali ibn al-Din al-Izz Jildaki. Twenty treated attributed to him. The list shows high activity as a writer-Jildaki chemicals. A thorough study of his writings is vast need to know what happened really tried to establish. To some extent, this study has been made by Ruska, Stapleton, patio Holm, and his disciples.
One major book entitled al-Talab al-Jildaki Nihayat fi Sharh al-Muktasab contains many quotations from earlier works, news, and as the use nitric acid to extract silver from the alloy of gold and silver. Al-Jildaki noted that the substances do not react, but by the weight final. (21) is one of four fundamental laws of modern chemistry.
The former chemical applied their knowledge to many chemical industrial arts. Only three art as shown here, this will enable readers to assess the extent of their knowledge of applied chemistry.
Book:
Paper was invented by the Chinese was prepared from the cocoon of the silkworm. Some specimens of the date of tissue Back to the existing second century BC The manufacture of paper from the first outside of China was held in Samarkand (757). When Samarkand was captured by the Arabs in the manufacture of paper spread in the Arab world, such as the Maghreb. (Tunisia, Morocco, Algiers).

In the late 12th century had four paper mills Fasalone. In Spain, the main center of production was Shatibi paper is an ancient Arab city until 1239. Cordoba was the center of the paper sector in Spain.
The Arabs developed this art. Prepared the role not only of silk, cotton, but rags and wood.In the middle of the 10th century introduced the paper industry in Spain. Paper Khorasan was made of flax.
This is not a treaty on principles papermaking, wa al-Kuttab Umdat 'Uddatu dhawi'l Albãb, which is attributed to Ibn al-Amir al-Muizz "Badis, ruler of the dynasty (1015-1061 Zaire) in Tunisia. Chapter 11 of the Treaty, which deals with paper, has been edited, translated and studied closely by the main student newspaper Arabic, Josef Karabacek. This article explains how to prepare pasta, which makes the leaves, wash and clean, color, enamel and glue, and give them an antique look. There is no comparable text in another language such as the date is known.
The preparation of the paste consists of a Many complex chemical processes, which shows the progress of chemical knowledge of the Arabs and Egyptians at that time.
Papermaking writing in Spain is one of the most useful contributions of Arabs to Europe. Without this document the scale at which education People developed in Europe would not have been possible. The development of tissue paper, would have been impossible in Europe because of the lack of production of silk. The method of Arabs in the production of cotton paper can be useful for Europeans. After Spain art the manufacture of paper was created in Italy (from 1268 to 1276). France gets its first paper mills in Old Spain. Among these countries, industry across Europe.
Another type of paper, marbled paper, which was common in the documents later, along the edges of paper and books, has been prepared in the East, and exported to the West. About the preparation of paper marble Roger Bacon said: "The Turks have a paper art very chamoletting, who is not with us in use. Take different colors with oil and put them jointly and severally (in drops) on water and stirring the water gently, and then the wet paper (to a certain thickness) with her, waving the paper, and veins, as O Marble Chamolet.
West bound books in the late 16th century with the documents are published at the end of the East, but it was not until a century after Europeans began to be binding. marble hand the documents are rarely used, but more or less clumsily reproduced imitations still serve several purposes.

It is an Arabic word "Rizman, which means a set of properties that had been adopted in almost all Western languages, with slight variations in the direction of a ream of paper (in English: ream). It also shows that Arab companies West. (22)
Tile:
The tile manufacturing industry which involves many complex processes and chemical techniques, has been highly developed by the Arabs. The first treaty, a Persian text, which specializes in the manufacture of earthenware, was unique in the literature until that the 16th century. He writes 'Ali' Abd Allah ibn Kashani in the 13th century. This book entitled al-Wa'Arã'is Jawahar Ajâ'ib al-Nafä'is has been written on gems and perfumes. It explains the manufacture of pottery, ingredients (such as clay, borax, feldspar, cobalt, lapis lazuli, lead, manganese, tin, etc.), their mixtures, oven and implement processes, methods glazing and decorating. This treaty is similar to several other treaties Gemstone written in Arabic and Persian. The final chapter discusses the art of ceramics enamel. This account is particularly valuable because it is based on real practical and traditional. The manufacturer of super brightness mihrab (arch) of the tomb of Imam Yahya (now at the Hermitage, St. Petersburg), dated 1305 BC, Ali Ibn Yusuf Ibn Muhammad, was Perhaps a brother of the author. (23)
Ceramics:
The early history of pottery and Egyptian Arabic has not been to date in writing. Many interesting specimens have been discovered in recent years that shed much light on the development this industry in the Arab world. The centers of the industry is in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt and Valencia, where different types are spread rapidly throughout the Islamic Caliphate.
Under the influence of these centers in Arab potters revived old technical processes, developed New and began experimenting with decorative and ornamental. Arab potters readily absorbed progressive ideas, but
while maintaining very original. Two types of pottery were in common use, glass and polished. Glazed ceramic (glazed earthenware) s of old, from the early days, the property experts. In polished pottery also made great strides. "This design is painted on a metal salt on a surface glass and fixed by firing squad in Smike in a way that gives a metallic sheen, which varies in different specimens of a bright red color of copper a yellow-greenish, and in some cases without brilliant iridescence. (24)
In the final chapter Persian text of al-Kitab wa al-Jawahar'Ara'is 'Al-Ajâ'ib Nafa'is, the author describes the techniques of crystal
with two lamps (glosses), the creation of the road, covered Decorating in a muffle furnace. (That is
separated from the flame, the heat outside) haf't rank, a Persian term
Referring to the seven colors of the planets. There may be a reference to the technique of polychrome enamel, ceramic appeal Minai (another term Persian meaning bright colors wash mine and mine). The author highlights the differences between art that is practiced in Kashan, Tabriz and Baghdad. Baghdad Tabriz and other types of wood and potash were used.
In the 15th century, the Arab art pottery ceramic has been followed by Italy, which has attracted a great deal of technical knowledge of adults from Arab sources. This technique has proven useful in knowledge of the reactivation of the ceramic art of the Renaissance. (25)
REFERENCES: –
1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, 1951, p.360
2. Ibid., P. 355.
3 George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science Washington, 1950, Vol I. P. 532.
4. Wasit, Nayyar Hakim, Arab al-Tibb (A translation Urdu of Arabic medicine by Edward G. Browne), Lahore, 1954, p. 26.
5. Ibid.
6. Haji Khalifah, Kashf al-Zunün, Istanbul, 1943. Vol I, p. 1254.
Al-Zirakli, Khair al-Din, vol outpost of Al-Alam. II, p. 342.
7. Sarton, op. cit., p. 559.
8. Ibid., P. 572. Al-Qift, op. cit. P. 251.
9. Ibid. P. 271. Sarton, op. cit. P. 609.
10. Ibid, p. 592.
11. Ibid, p. 597.
12. Ibid., Pp 620, 668.
13. Ibid., P. 678.
14. Ibid., P. 681.
15 Ibid., P. 707.
16. Ibid, vol. II, Part II, p. 650.

17. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, English translation by Frenz Rosenthal, London, 1957, vol. 3, p. 267.
18. Ibid. P. 278
19. Haji. Khalifah, op. cit. P. 1936.
20. Sarton, op. Flight cit. III, Part I, p. 759.
21. Ibid. Volume II Part. II, p. 1045.
22. Sarton, op. cit., Vol. III, Part I, p. 321.
23. Sarton, op. Flight cit. III, Part I, p. 756.
24 Arnold and Guillaume, op. cit. P. 125.

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